Fix the mistake: Imperialism and Asia

The Opium War and China’s Semi-Colonialization

In the 19th century, the powerful Qing Empire was defeated in a war with Britain and began its long path toward semi-colonialization. This was the first wave of imperialism to reach Asia.

Basic Knowledge

Because silver was flowing out of Britain as payment for tea and silk imported from the Qing, Britain conducted a triangular trade (Britain–India–Qing) in which it smuggled opium grown in the colony of India into the Qing Empire and recovered silver. The Qing emperor Daoguang sent Lin Zexu to Guangzhou as an Imperial Commissioner, where he confiscated and destroyed opium. This led Britain to launch the Opium War in 1840, defeating the Qing. The Treaty of Nanjing in 1842 required the cession of Hong Kong Island, the opening of five ports including Shanghai, payment of an indemnity, and the abolition of the Cohong. In 1843, additional unequal terms were imposed, including extraterritoriality, loss of tariff autonomy, and most-favored-nation treatment. In the Arrow War of 1856–60 (Second Opium War), the Anglo-French allied forces occupied Beijing. The Treaty of Tianjin (1858) and the Convention of Beijing (1860) imposed further expansion of open ports, freedom of Christian missionary work, and the cession of the Kowloon Peninsula.

Further Study (Background and Effects)

The Qing suffered from internal disorder and external threats. In 1851, Hong Xiuquan, influenced by Christianity, organized the Society of God Worshippers and launched the Taiping Rebellion. It occupied Nanjing under the slogan “Destroy the Manchus and restore the Han,” but was suppressed in 1864 by Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, together with the Ever-Victorious Army (Gordon). As a result, the Self-Strengthening Movement (Chinese learning as the essence, Western learning for practical use) began in the 1860s, promoting the Westernization of the military and industry (led by Li Hongzhang and others). However, its limits became clear after the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95. Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and others attempted the Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898, with the support of the Guangxu Emperor, but it failed because of a coup by the Empress Dowager Cixi. China became increasingly semi-colonialized.

Points of Caution (Easily Confused)

① The Opium War (1840-42) and the Arrow War (1856-60・Second Opium War) were separate wars. ② Distinguish the Treaty of Nanjing (1842・with Britain), the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895・with Japan), and the Convention of Beijing (1860). ③ Distinguish the Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s–90s・Chinese learning as the essence, Western learning for practical use・reform within the existing system), the Hundred Days’ Reform (1898・institutional reform), and the 1911 Revolution (1911・overthrow of the dynasty). ④ The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was influenced by Christianity but reflected Hong Xiuquan’s original interpretation.

Practice

1. What was the name of the unequal treaty concluded between the Qing and Britain in 1842?
2. Who led the Taiping Rebellion and advocated “Destroy the Manchus and restore the Han”?
3. Which reformer of the late Qing advocated “reform and self-strengthening” in 1898?