Past-participle modification uses a verb’s past participle (-ed or an irregular form) to modify a noun passively, meaning “done” or “being done.” The key is to understand the feeling of the passive voice.
Basic Rules
A past participle also modifies a noun like an adjective. Its meaning has a passive or completed image: “done” or “being done.”
The position rules are the same as for present participles:
① One word only: before the noun (the broken window = the window that was broken)
② As a phrase: after the noun (the window broken by Tom = the window that was broken by Tom)
It is easy to understand this as a shortened form of the relative pronoun “who/which is + past participle”: “the window which was broken = the window broken.”
To distinguish a present participle (“doing”) from a past participle (“done”), decide whether the noun itself is doing the action or receiving the action.
The broken window was repaired.（The window that was broken was repaired）← One word, placed before the noun
This is a book written by Soseki.（This is a book written by Soseki）← A phrase, placed after the noun
The boy named Tom is my friend.（The boy who was named Tom is my friend）
The car parked over there is mine.（The car parked over there is mine）
Points to Remember
① Distinguishing present and past participles:
- The noun does the action → present participle (the running boy = the boy who is running)
- The noun receives the action → past participle (the broken window = the window that was broken)
“The window breaks” is unnatural in this meaning, so “the window is broken” → past participle broken.
② Conversion from a relative pronoun: Imagine omitting who/which + the be verb, as in “the language which is spoken = the language spoken.”
③ Intransitive verbs can also be used in past-participle modification with an active meaning: “fallen leaves” and “retired teacher” ← fall and retire are intransitive verbs, but their past participles are used to express an already completed state.
④ Common patterns:
- a letter written in English（a letter written in English）
- the language spoken in Japan（the language spoken in Japan）
- a car made in Germany（a car made in Germany）
- a boy named Ken（a boy named Ken）
- Past participle = “...that was done” (passive or completed)
- One word → before the noun; phrase → after the noun
- Distinguish them as present participle (does) vs. past participle (is done)
- A shortened form of relative pronoun + be + past participle
- Common phrases include made in / written in / named
Practice
- Write “a broken watch” in English (one-word modification).
- Write “a letter written in English” in English (phrase modification).
- Rewrite the relative-pronoun sentence using a past participle: This is a watch which was made in Switzerland.