From the 17th through the 19th centuries, the three great Islamic empires—the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires—all declined. In their place, European powers that had undergone the Industrial Revolution advanced into the Middle East and South Asia.
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
- 1683: The second siege of Vienna failed → thereafter, the empire continued to lose territory to Europe
- “Eastern Question”: the struggle among European powers over the territories of the declining Ottoman Empire
- 19th century: independence movements arose in various regions, including Greek independence (1830) and Egyptian autonomy (Muhammad Ali)
- Called “the sick man of Europe”; Britain, France, and Russia intervened
- 1923: The empire disappeared after defeat in World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey by Kemal Ataturk
Decline of the Safavid Dynasty and Mughal Empire
- Safavid Dynasty: The capital, Isfahan, fell after an Afghan invasion in 1722; the dynasty fell in 1736
- Mughal Empire: Became hollowed out in the 18th century under pressure from the Maratha Kingdom, Sikhs, and European powers, especially Britain → after the Indian Rebellion of 1858 (Sepoy Rebellion), Britain deposed the last Mughal emperor
European Imperialism
- Western European powers gained overwhelming military and economic power through the Industrial Revolution (18〜19th centuries)
- Ottoman territories → divided by Britain, France, and Russia (the Sykes-Picot Agreement after World War I)
- India → direct British rule from 1858 onward (the British Raj)
- Central Asia → the Russian Empire conquered most of the region by the end of the 19th century
Example Question ①
State the background to the Ottoman Empire being called “the sick man of Europe” and the reasons why the great powers intervened in its territories.
Answer: In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose territory because of financial difficulties, declining military power, and ethnic independence movements. The great powers intervened according to their own interests: Russia sought warm-water ports and access to the Mediterranean through its southward expansion policy; Britain protected the Ottoman Empire to secure the safety of the route to India, including the Suez Canal; and France gained influence in Syria and Lebanon. These complex competing interests were called the “Eastern Question.”
State the background to the Ottoman Empire being called “the sick man of Europe” and the reasons why the great powers intervened in its territories.
Answer: In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose territory because of financial difficulties, declining military power, and ethnic independence movements. The great powers intervened according to their own interests: Russia sought warm-water ports and access to the Mediterranean through its southward expansion policy; Britain protected the Ottoman Empire to secure the safety of the route to India, including the Suez Canal; and France gained influence in Syria and Lebanon. These complex competing interests were called the “Eastern Question.”
Key Points
- The failure of the second siege of Vienna in 1683 → the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's long-term decline
- “Eastern Question” = the conflict of interests among the great powers over the declining Ottoman Empire
- After the Sepoy Rebellion in 1858, Britain deposed the Mughal emperor → the British Raj
- The decline of the three great empires → the prototype of the present borders of the Middle East, South Asia, and Central Asia was formed
Practice Questions
- State why the decline of the Ottoman Empire was called the “Eastern Question.”
- State the name and result of the event in 1857 that brought about the practical end of the Mughal Empire.
- State the year in which the Safavid Dynasty fell and its direct cause.
Answers and Explanations
- Answer: It was called the “Eastern Question” because Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and other powers clashed over the division of the territories of the declining Ottoman Empire (the “East” of Europe), repeatedly creating diplomatic and military problems.
Explanation: The Crimean War (1853〜56) was also one aspect of the Eastern Question. - Answer: The Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Rebellion, 1857〜1858). This was a large-scale rebellion by Indian soldiers employed by the British East India Company. After suppressing it, the British government dissolved the East India Company, ruled India directly (the British Raj), and deposed and exiled the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II.
Explanation: The nominal continuation of the Mughal Empire ended. - Answer: 1736. The direct cause was the fall of the capital, Isfahan, after the invasion by Afghans (the Ghilzai tribe) in 1722. Nader Shah then seized real power, abolished the Safavid Dynasty in 1736, and ascended the throne as Nader Shah.
Explanation: The Afghan invasion marked the practical end of the Safavid Dynasty.