The Invasions of Korea and Hideyoshi’s Later Years

After unifying Japan, Hideyoshi launched overseas invasions. The Bunroku and Keicho Campaigns (invasions of Korea) shook the international order of East Asia but caused enormous suffering for Japan.

Basic Knowledge

Development of Hideyoshi’s overseas policies:
1587: Edict to Expel Christian Missionaries — After pacifying Kyushu, he ordered missionaries to leave the country. Because Nanban trade was still permitted, the order was not fully enforced.
1588: Anti-Piracy Edict — Prohibited wokou activity.
1592: Bunroku Campaign (invasion of Korea) — Sent an army of about 160,000 to the Korean Peninsula. Kato Kiyomasa and Konishi Yukinaga led the advance. At first, the army advanced rapidly, capturing the capital, Hanseong (present-day Seoul), and reaching Pyongyang. However, the Korean navy under Yi Sun-sin cut Japanese supply lines with turtle ships, Ming reinforcements moved south, and the army encountered resistance from Korean volunteer forces. The situation became deadlocked, and a truce was reached in 1593.
1593-1596: Peace negotiations — Negotiations with the Ming continued but broke down because of differences between Hideyoshi’s demands (including a Ming princess as empress and the revival of tally trade) and the Ming understanding.
1597: Keicho Campaign (second invasion) — He sent about 140,000 troops again. They aimed to conquer southern Korea but struggled because of Yi Sun-sin’s return and resistance from Ming forces.
August 1598: Hideyoshi died — The Five Elders secretly decided to withdraw the troops. The withdrawal was completed by the end of the year. Yi Sun-sin was killed in the final naval battle, the Battle of Noryang, but the Japanese army suffered a major defeat.
Results: Korea suffered tremendous damage, including devastated land and a sharply reduced population. The Ming declined because of the financial burden and later fell in 1644. Japan lost enormous amounts of money and manpower, weakening the Toyotomi government.

In Depth (Background and Effects)

There are several theories about the purpose of the invasions.
① Conquest of the Ming (Hideyoshi’s personal ambition): Hideyoshi is said to have planned to conquer the Ming and install members of the imperial family as rulers of China, Japan, and Korea.
② Distribution of land to daimyos: Because there was no more land to distribute domestically, he sought land overseas.
③ Reduction of daimyo power: He aimed to exhaust powerful daimyos overseas.
Effects of the invasions:
① Japan: Kato Kiyomasa, Konishi Yukinaga, and Shimazu Yoshihiro distinguished themselves, but Japan lost enormous funds and manpower, damaging the economic foundation of the Toyotomi government.
② Korea: The land was devastated and cultural treasures were looted. At the same time, potters taken to Japan, including Yi Sam-pyeong, became the originators of Arita ware, Satsuma ware, and Hagi ware.
③ China (Ming): The cost of sending reinforcements strained national finances, contributing to the Ming’s decline and fall.
④ East Asian international order: The Ming’s prestige was badly damaged, contributing to the later conquest of China by the Qing (Manchu).
The Toyotomi retainers, exhausted by the invasions, split into the civil-administration faction (including Ishida Mitsunari) and the military faction (including Kato Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori). This became a prelude to the later Battle of Sekigahara.

Points to Note (Easily Confused)

① Distinguish the Bunroku Campaign (1592-1593) from the Keicho Campaign (1597-1598). In Korea they are called the Imjin Waeran and Jeongyu Waeran.
② Yi Sun-sin = famous Korean naval commander who used turtle ships. He died in the Battle of Noryang in 1598 and is a Korean hero.
③ Distinguish the Edict to Expel Christian Missionaries (1587) from the anti-Christian edicts (1612 and 1614, Ieyasu). Hideyoshi’s order was not fully enforced, while Ieyasu later promoted stricter bans.
④ After the invasions, the military faction of Kato Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori opposed the civil-administration faction of Ishida Mitsunari. This became a prelude to Sekigahara.

Practice

1. State the name of Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s first invasion of Korea, which began in 1592.
2. State the name of the Korean commander who led the Korean navy and troubled the Japanese with turtle ships.
3. Briefly explain one effect of the invasions on Japanese culture, giving examples of ceramics.