“Happiness” is a theme that humanity has questioned for a long time. Utilitarianism placed happiness at the center of morality and asked how the happiness of society as a whole could be maximized. Let us learn about utilitarian thinking through the two philosophers Bentham and Mill.
Basic Knowledge
Utilitarianism is an ethical position that judges whether an action is good or bad according to the amount of happiness (pleasure) it produces as a result. The British philosopher Bentham (1748〜1832) proposed “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” as the principle of morality. Bentham believed that pleasure and pain could be measured quantitatively and proposed a felicific calculus that could assess them according to intensity, duration, certainty, and extent (the number of people affected). In contrast, Mill (1806〜1873) criticized Bentham’s quantitative utilitarianism and argued that pleasures differ in quality. As shown by the statement, “It is better to be a dissatisfied Socrates than a satisfied pig,” he developed qualitative utilitarianism, which holds that higher intellectual pleasures are more valuable than lower physical pleasures.
Utilitarianism (the ethical position of judging actions by the amount of happiness they produce as a result)
Bentham (a British philosopher and legal scholar who proposed “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” and founded utilitarianism)
The greatest happiness of the greatest number (the idea that the goal of morality is to bring as much happiness as possible to as many people as possible)
Felicific calculus (Bentham’s method of evaluating pleasure numerically by its intensity, duration, certainty, and extent)
Mill (a British philosopher and economist who argued that pleasures differ in quality and developed utilitarianism)
Qualitative utilitarianism (Mill’s position that pleasures differ qualitatively between lower and higher levels)
Further Exploration (Background and Significance)
Utilitarianism developed in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries against the background of the Industrial Revolution. At that time, the gap between rich and poor was severe, making the question “How can the happiness of society as a whole be increased?” urgent. Utilitarianism greatly influenced penal reform, social improvement, and the development of democracy. Today, utilitarian ideas are still used in policymaking in the form of cost-benefit analysis and decisions that prioritize the interests of the greatest number. However, utilitarianism has also been criticized. It may allow the rights of minorities to be violated for the happiness of the majority, and it is difficult to express happiness numerically.
- Utilitarianism is a representative form of consequentialism, which judges an action by its “result.”
- Bentham believed that pleasure could be measured quantitatively (quantitative utilitarianism).
- Mill criticized Bentham and argued that pleasures differ in quality (qualitative utilitarianism).
- “The greatest happiness of the greatest number” continues to influence the design of policies and laws.
- A limitation of utilitarianism is the danger that minority rights may be ignored by majority decision-making.
- Utilitarianism is an important ethical position contrasted with the deontological ethics of Kant, studied in the next lesson.
Points to Note (Easily Confused Concepts)
① Clearly understand the difference between Bentham (quantitative utilitarianism) and Mill (qualitative utilitarianism). ② Utilitarianism does not mean “egoism,” or pursuing only one’s own interests; it pursues the happiness of society as a whole. ③ Felicific calculus is a concept specific to Bentham, and Mill criticized it. ④ Utilitarianism emphasizes “results,” whereas Kant’s deontological ethics emphasizes “motives.” This contrast is the central theme of the next lesson.
Practice
- Explain Bentham’s principle of “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” and state its advantages and problems.
- Explain Mill’s criticism of Bentham’s utilitarianism and summarize the position of qualitative utilitarianism.
- Give one example of utilitarian thinking being used in modern policymaking and state your opinion about the validity of that decision.