The question “What kind of existence is a human being?” is a fundamental question of philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophers explored the nature of human beings through the keywords reason, virtue, and goodness, laying the foundation for Western philosophy. Let us study the ideas of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Basic Knowledge
The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 BCE) sought truth through dialogue (the Socratic method), taking “knowledge of ignorance” (knowing that one does not know) as his starting point. He advocated “care of the soul (concern for the soul)” and stated that virtue (arete) is the essence of living as a human being. His student Plato (427–347 BCE) believed that a perfect Idea (true reality) exists behind the sensible world (the theory of Forms). He held that true knowledge is recognition of the Ideas and can be attained only through the power of reason. His further student Aristotle (384–322 BCE) defined human beings as “political animals (social animals)” and stated that acting within a community is the essence of being human. The highest good is eudaimonia (happiness, or living well), which he taught is achieved through the practice of virtue (intellectual and moral virtues).
Knowledge of ignorance (Socrates’ starting point. Knowing that one knows one does not know is the first step toward knowledge)
Socratic method (midwifery) (Socrates’ dialogical method. Drawing out the other person’s inner knowledge through questioning)
Idea (Plato’s concept. The eternal, perfect true reality behind the phenomenal world)
Political animal (Aristotle’s definition of human beings. Humans can realize their nature only within a community)
Eudaimonia (Aristotle’s highest good. “Living well and happiness” achieved through the practice of virtue)
Virtue (arete) (Human excellence and superior qualities. A central concept in ancient Greek ethics)
Further Exploration (Background and Significance)
Ancient Greek philosophy is the source of modern ethics, political science, and education. Socrates’ method of questioning can be regarded as a forerunner of “dialogue-based learning” and “critical thinking” in modern education. Plato’s theory of Ideas encourages training in philosophical thinking: “What is visible is not the only truth.” Aristotle’s view of human beings as “political animals” demonstrates that humans are social beings and provides a basis for the importance of social participation and civic activity. In addition, Aristotle’s “virtue ethics” continues to attract attention today as a third ethical approach distinct from Kantianism and utilitarianism, because it asks not only “What should one do?” but also “What kind of person should one be?”
- Socrates→Plato→Aristotle were connected through a teacher–student relationship, and their ideas were inherited and developed.
- Socrates pursued truth through “knowledge of ignorance” and dialogue.
- Plato believed that one can approach the truth (the Ideas) only through reason, not through the senses.
- Aristotle defined human beings as social beings (political animals).
- Eudaimonia means “happiness,” but refers to a fulfilled way of life achieved through the practice of virtue, not sensory pleasure.
- Virtue ethics is characterized by asking “What kind of person should one be?” rather than “What should one do?”
Points of Caution (Easily Confused)
① Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were connected through a teacher–student relationship, but their ideas are not necessarily identical. Aristotle in particular criticized Plato’s theory of Ideas. ② Ideas are a concept of Plato and do not belong to Aristotle. ③ Eudaimonia differs from Bentham’s “pleasure.” It means a “fulfilled life” achieved through the practice of virtue rather than pleasure. ④ The Socratic method is not a “technique for defeating an opponent in argument,” but a form of midwifery that draws out inner knowledge.
Practice
- Explain what Socrates’ “knowledge of ignorance” means and state why it is important in philosophical inquiry.
- Explain what Aristotle meant by defining human beings as “political animals,” and consider the implications for modern society.
- Explain Plato’s theory of Ideas and summarize the relationship between “phenomena (things apprehended through the senses)” and “Ideas (true reality).”