Thinking about ethics and how human beings should live is not limited to the West. China, India, and Japan also have rich intellectual traditions, and concepts such as “benevolence,” “compassion,” and “harmony” continue to offer important insights today. Let us study representative examples of Eastern and Japanese thought.
Basic Knowledge
Chinese thinker Confucius（551–479 BCE）was the founder of Confucianism. At the core of Confucius’s ethics is benevolence（ren）. “Benevolence” means love and consideration for others, and specifically appears in the practice of shu, expressed as “Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire”（do not do to others what you would not want done to you）. He also valued ritual propriety（social norms and rituals）, viewing benevolence as an inner virtue and ritual propriety as an external code of conduct, and understanding them as an integrated whole. Buddhism（founder: Shakyamuni）, which originated in India, placed the practice of compassion（love and pity for all living beings）at the center of its teachings. It regards “attachment” as the cause of suffering and aims for liberation through enlightenment. In Japan, the philosophy of harmony, represented by Prince Shotoku’s statement “Harmony is to be valued”（Seventeen-Article Constitution）, took root, fostering a spirit that values harmony and cooperation over conflict.
Confucius（Chinese thinker of the Spring and Autumn period. Founder of Confucianism. Taught benevolence, ritual propriety, and self-cultivation and governance of others）
Benevolence（the central virtue of Confucianism. Love, consideration, and humaneness toward others）
Ritual propriety（social norms and etiquette valued in Confucianism. A code of conduct that expresses benevolence externally）
Compassion（a central Buddhist value. Love（慈）and pity（悲）for all living beings）
Philosophy of harmony（a uniquely Japanese value. A spirit that values harmony and cooperation over conflict. Represented by Prince Shotoku’s constitution）
Shu（the method of practicing benevolence presented by Confucius. “Do not do to others what you would not want done to you,” the Golden Rule）
In-Depth Exploration (Background・Significance)
Confucianism later developed into movements such as Neo-Confucianism and the School of Wang Yangming, deeply influencing the culture and politics of East Asia as a whole, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. In Japan, during the Edo period, Confucianism became central to the moral education of the samurai class, and “loyalty, righteousness, and propriety” developed into bushido. Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 6th century and underwent its own development through the syncretic blending of Buddhism and Shinto. Japanese Buddhism includes diverse schools such as Pure Land Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, and Nichiren Buddhism. The “philosophy of harmony” also forms part of the background to cultural practices in contemporary Japanese society, such as “nemawashi,” collective deliberation, and an emphasis on consensus. However, it has also been pointed out that “harmony” can lead to conformity pressure and the suppression of minority opinions, so it is important to approach it critically.
- The core of Confucianism is “benevolence”（love for others）, which is practiced in combination with “ritual propriety.”
- Confucius’s “shu” is compared with the Western “Golden Rule（do unto others as you would have them do unto you）.”
- Buddhist “compassion” teaches love for all life and provides a basis for altruistic action.
- Prince Shotoku’s “philosophy of harmony” is regarded as the origin of Japan’s culture of cooperation and harmony.
- Eastern thought is contrasted with individualistic Western thought in its emphasis on “relationships” and “community.”
- It is necessary to understand that the philosophy of “harmony” also has the negative aspect of conformity pressure.
Points to Note (Easily Confused)
① Benevolence（Confucianism）and compassion（Buddhism）both mean “love for others,” but they differ in that Confucianism emphasizes virtue in human relationships, while Buddhism emphasizes equal love for all life. ② Confucius（Confucianism）and Shakyamuni（Buddhism）were different people with different philosophies. Be careful not to confuse them. ③ Ritual propriety does not mean “thanks” but “social norms and etiquette.” ④ The philosophy of harmony does not mean “agreeing with everything”; its original meaning is to pursue harmony while respecting diverse opinions.
Practice
- Explain what kind of virtue Confucius’s “benevolence” is, and also describe its relationship with “ritual propriety.”
- Explain the Buddhist concept of “compassion,” and consider its similarities and differences with Confucian “benevolence.”
- When applying Prince Shotoku’s philosophy that “harmony is to be valued” to contemporary society, describe its advantages and problems.