In East Asia, a distinctive international order centered on China was formed. This was called the investiture system and the tributary system. It was fundamentally different from the “equality of sovereign states” in modern Europe.
What Was Investiture?
Investiture was the practice by which the Chinese emperor granted rulers of surrounding countries the title of “king,” a seal, and a calendar, thereby officially recognizing their positions. Countries that received investiture were regarded as China’s “vassal states” and were obligated to pay tribute.
- Contents of investiture: Granting of a royal title (for example, “King of Korea” or “King of Japan”), an official seal, and the imperial calendar
- Significance of investiture: China confirmed its hegemony, while surrounding countries gained legitimacy and opportunities for trade
- Tribute: A ceremony in which envoys from surrounding countries brought tribute goods and bowed before the emperor
Countries participating in the tributary system included Korea, Vietnam, the Ryukyu Kingdom, Japan (during certain periods), Southeast Asian countries, and Central Asian countries.
・Tributary trade: Because China gave rich return gifts in exchange for tribute goods, it was essentially “profitable trade” for surrounding countries
・Ryukyu: Prosperous through intermediary trade during the Ming dynasty. A key center of trade linking Japan, China, and Southeast Asia
・Japan: The Muromachi shogunate (Ashikaga Yoshimitsu) paid tribute to the Ming dynasty and received the title “King of Japan” (tally trade, 1404–1547)
・Vietnam: Although it received investiture, it maintained independence in domestic affairs and practiced “dual diplomacy,” calling its own ruler “emperor” within the country
The Collapse of the Investiture System
As Western powers advanced into Asia in the 19th century, the modern international legal order based on sovereign equality eroded the investiture system. The system effectively collapsed through events such as the 1876 Japan–Korea Treaty of Amity, which defined Korea as an “independent state” rather than a Chinese vassal, and the 1895 First Sino-Japanese War, in which Qing China renounced its suzerainty over Korea.
Practice
- What was the system called in which the Chinese emperor granted rulers of surrounding countries royal titles, seals, and calendars and officially recognized their positions?
- Who was the shogun of the Muromachi shogunate who paid tribute to the Ming dynasty and received the title “King of Japan”?
- Give the main reason why the investiture system collapsed in the 19th century.