When Muhammad died in 632, a succession problem arose. The Muslim community selected caliphs (deputies of the Prophet) and conquered the territories of Byzantium and the Sasanian Empire one after another within only a few decades.
Selection of the Rightly Guided Caliphs
- Abu Bakr (first): Muhammad’s father-in-law. 632–634. Reunified tribes that had broken away
- Umar (second): 634–644. Conquered Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Iran
- Uthman (third): 644–656. Established the standard text of the Quran. Assassinated in 656
- Ali (fourth): 656–661. Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. Assassinated after internal conflict → an opportunity for the division between Sunni and Shiite Muslims
Jihad and Rapid Expansion
“Jihad” (effort and striving) originally referred to self-discipline, but during this period it also became a driving force behind military expansion. Reasons for the Arab army’s victories included:
- Both Byzantium and the Sasanian Empire had been weakened by a long war of attrition
- A flexible policy recognized non-Muslims as protected people (dhimmis) if they paid the jizya (poll tax)
- A system for distributing spoils motivated Arab warriors
Example Question ①
Explain the direct cause of the division between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.
Answer: After the assassination of Ali, the community divided between the Shiites, who argued that the caliph had to come from Muhammad’s bloodline (Ali’s descendants), and the Sunnis, who accepted leaders selected according to tradition (sunna). The decisive point of division was the killing of Ali’s son Husayn at the Battle of Karbala in 680.
Explain the direct cause of the division between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.
Answer: After the assassination of Ali, the community divided between the Shiites, who argued that the caliph had to come from Muhammad’s bloodline (Ali’s descendants), and the Sunnis, who accepted leaders selected according to tradition (sunna). The decisive point of division was the killing of Ali’s son Husayn at the Battle of Karbala in 680.
Example Question ②
Explain the system of protected people (dhimmis).
Answer: Under Islamic rule, “People of the Book,” such as Jews and Christians, received protection for their faith, property, and lives by paying the jizya (poll tax). Forced conversion was generally not carried out, which contributed to the relatively early acceptance of Islamic rule by people in conquered lands.
Explain the system of protected people (dhimmis).
Answer: Under Islamic rule, “People of the Book,” such as Jews and Christians, received protection for their faith, property, and lives by paying the jizya (poll tax). Forced conversion was generally not carried out, which contributed to the relatively early acceptance of Islamic rule by people in conquered lands.
Key Points
- During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (632–661), the Arabs conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and Iran
- The jizya (poll tax) and protected-people system stabilized rule in conquered lands
- Ali’s assassination → the origin of the division between Sunni and Shiite Muslims
- Uthman established the standard text of the Quran (the Uthmanic codex)
Practice Questions
- Give the four Rightly Guided Caliphs in the order in which they were selected.
- Give the name of the tax imposed on non-Muslims in conquered lands and the status granted in return.
- Briefly explain the origin of the word Shiite and the core of its claim.
Answers and Explanations
- Answer: Abu Bakr → Umar → Uthman → Ali
Explanation: The period of these four caliphs (632–661) is called the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. - Answer: Jizya (poll tax), protected people (dhimmis)
Explanation: It applied to the “People of the Book.” Muslims paid a different tax, zakat. - Answer: The name comes from “Shi'at Ali” (the party of Ali). It argues that leaders must come from Muhammad’s bloodline.
Explanation: Shiites are numerous today in Iran and southern Iraq.