Since the latter half of the 20th century, the impact of human activities on the global environment has become a serious problem. Environmental problems, including global warming, cannot be solved through the efforts of one country alone, making efforts by the entire international community essential.
Basic Knowledge
Global warming is the phenomenon in which the Earth's average temperature rises as greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane increase in the atmosphere. It causes sea-level rise, extreme weather, and the destruction of ecosystems. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, imposed greenhouse-gas reduction obligations on developed countries, but it had limitations, including the withdrawal of the United States and the absence of obligations for developing countries. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, is the first framework in which all countries, including developed and developing countries, submit and update reduction targets (NDCs). Its goal is to limit the rise in the global average temperature to 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels.
The loss of biodiversity is also serious. The Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit (Rio Conference). In 2010, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted in Nagoya, Japan, establishing rules for access to genetic resources and the sharing of benefits.
The tragedy of the commons, proposed by ecologist Garrett Hardin, explains a fundamental cause of environmental problems. Shared resources that anyone can use freely become overused and depleted when individuals try to maximize their own benefits.
Global Warming (The phenomenon of a rise in the Earth's average temperature caused by an increase in greenhouse gases)
Paris Agreement (An international framework for combating global warming, adopted in 2015, in which all parties submit reduction targets)
Convention on Biological Diversity (A convention adopted in 1992 to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity)
Tragedy of the Commons (The problem in which shared resources are overused and depleted through individuals' rational behavior)
NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) (Each country's voluntary greenhouse-gas reduction target under the Paris Agreement)
Earth Summit (Held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992; the climate change and biodiversity conventions were adopted)
Further Study (Background and Significance)
The 1972 Stockholm Conference (United Nations Conference on the Human Environment) was a historic meeting at which environmental problems were discussed internationally for the first time. Under the slogan "Only One Earth," the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established. At the 1992 Rio Conference, the concept of "sustainable development" became established, and the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity were adopted.
The tragedy of the commons directly applies to global commons such as the atmosphere, oceans, and forests. The "free-rider problem," in which international cooperation becomes difficult because each country does not want to bear the cost of reducing emissions, has the same underlying cause. The Paris Agreement adopted "voluntary NDCs" rather than "mandatory reductions" in order to prioritize the participation of more countries. However, it has also been criticized as insufficient if based only on voluntary targets, and a stronger framework is being sought.
- The Kyoto Protocol imposed reduction obligations only on developed countries. The Paris Agreement applies to all countries.
- The goal of the Paris Agreement is to limit the rise in temperature to 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels.
- The Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit.
- The Nagoya Protocol (2010) establishes rules for sharing the benefits of genetic resources.
- The tragedy of the commons means that freely usable shared resources become depleted through overuse.
- UNEP is the United Nations Environment Programme, established in 1972.
Points to Note (Easily Confused)
① Distinguish between the Kyoto Protocol (adopted in 1997; obligations only for developed countries) and the Paris Agreement (adopted in 2015; all parties set targets). ② Ozone-layer depletion (mainly caused by CFCs) and global warming (mainly caused by CO₂ and other gases) are separate problems. ③ The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on Climate Change are separate conventions, although both were adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit. ④ The tragedy of the commons is a concept proposed by Garrett Hardin in 1968 and concerns "shared resources," not public property.
Practice
- Explain the differences between the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, focusing on the scope of participating countries and the nature of reduction obligations.
- What kind of problem is the "tragedy of the commons"? Explain it in connection with global environmental problems.
- Explain specifically what problems arise when biodiversity is lost.