Throughout the history of Central Asia, the nomadic peoples of the steppes and the settled peoples of the oases formed a complex relationship of coexistence and conflict, rather than simply being opposed. Settled civilizations needed the military power of nomads, while nomads needed the products of settled agriculture and trade goods.
Economic Interdependence
- What nomads provided: Horses, sheep, furs, and military power (mercenaries and guards)
- What settled peoples provided: Grain, silk, pottery, iron products, and crafts
- Oasis cities functioned as places of exchange between nomadic and settled peoples
- Nomadic economies depended not only on raiding but also on fees from intermediary trade and tax collection
Conflict and Conquest
- When agricultural products were insufficient, nomads raided and invaded settled regions
- On the other hand, many examples exist of conquering nomads assimilating into settled agricultural civilizations (Mongol peoples becoming Chinese and Islamic, and the Xiongnu submitting to the Later Han)
- “Inner Asian type” states: Hybrid states in which nomadic rulers governed the agricultural lands of settled peoples. The Mongol Empire, Mughal Empire, and Qing dynasty are typical examples
Key Points
“Nomads were barbaric” is a misconception: In the past, Eurocentric historical perspectives viewed nomads as forces that destroyed civilization. Recent research, however, emphasizes that nomads also promoted east–west trade and served as cultural intermediaries. Although the Mongol Empire destroyed some cities, examples such as Samarkand were later rebuilt and prospered under the Pax Mongolica.
“Nomads were barbaric” is a misconception: In the past, Eurocentric historical perspectives viewed nomads as forces that destroyed civilization. Recent research, however, emphasizes that nomads also promoted east–west trade and served as cultural intermediaries. Although the Mongol Empire destroyed some cities, examples such as Samarkand were later rebuilt and prospered under the Pax Mongolica.
The “Internalization” of Nomadic Peoples
After conquering settled peoples, nomads often adopted the culture, religion, and language of those they had conquered. The four khanates of the Mongol Empire became Islamic, Chinese, or Persianized over time, illustrating the repeated pattern in which “conquerors assimilated into the culture of the conquered.” This is sometimes called the “internalization of nomadic peoples.”
Practice
- Explain the specific economic interdependence between nomadic and settled peoples by naming what each side provided.
- Give two examples of the four khanates of the Mongol Empire assimilating into local cultures over time.
- Explain why the view of nomads as “barbaric destroyers” has been revised in recent years.